Case studies, data, proceedings and country reports

IWMI Working Papers document the work and thinking of IWMI researchers that fall outside the scope of the generic concepts presented in the Research Report Series. These publications are a collection of conference or workshop proceedings, discussion papers or reports on progress of research, country-specific research papers, monographs, selected reports to donors and partners, etc. Working Papers are reviewed internally.

Note: Working Papers are currently available only in PDF format and require Adobe Acrobat Reader™ (you can download a free version from the Adobe website).

 
121. Environmental and Social Values of River Water: Examples from the Menik Ganga, Sri Lanka
Similarly to other water demands, environmental water demand (Environmental Flows - EF) also has an economic value and cost. However, few studies have directly considered these costs to date. In this paper, the Menik Ganga (River) in southern Sri Lanka is used as a case study to attempt to evaluate the costs and benefits of EF. The EF components evaluated include the needs of the religious festival at Kataragama, the requirements of the Yala National Park, the requirements of the Pilinnawa Wetland and the requirements of the Yala Marine Protected Area and the Yala Fishery Management Area. Estimates are based on use values of EF such as marketed goods and recreation. For some components multiple estimates have been attempted. A cumulative value of individual EF components is calculated and discussed. It is anticipated that valuing the benefits of EF, in the Menik River or in similar other basins in Sri Lanka and elsewhere, would strengthen the decision making process of water allocation in the future.
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120. Establishing a Catchment Monitoring Network through a Participatory Approach
Catchment monitoring has always been important to water resources managers and scientists in the development and implementation of effective water resources management strategies. The establishment of a catchment monitoring network involves a process, from the inception of the idea to the actual construction/installation of various structures and instruments while engaging relevant stakeholders especially the local community. In many cases, such a process is not documented, even though it is crucial to do so in order to share such experiences for the benefit of other stakeholders, including researchers, who may wish to undertake a similar exercise. Despite numerous field challenges (social, scientific and engineering), this report strives to document a successful process of establishing a detailed catchment monitoring network in the midst of a rural community inhabited by smallholder farmers, the Potshini community, in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa.
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119. Decision Support Systems for Large Dam Planning and Operation in Africa
Dam planners and operators often have to consider a huge number of factors and conflicting objectives. This makes decision making extremely difficult. In such situations, decision support systems (DSS) have an important role to play. Over the years, many different DSSs have been developed for dam planning and operation. This report presents a review of the different types of DSS and their application in water resource management. Although some information and examples have been obtained from elsewhere, the main focus is Africa. The report is not a comprehensive compendium on DSS application in dam planning and operation, but rather, it provides an overview and framework for understanding issues pertaining to decision-making in relation to large dams in Africa.
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118. A Proposed Framework for Irrigation Management Transfer in Iran: Lessons from Asia and Iran
Iran is facing a serious water scarcity and the Government of Iran is trying to implement technical and institutional measures to meet the challenge. One of the key strategies being persuaded by the Iranian authorities is the devolution of management responsibility to users. Thus, irrigation management transfer (IMT) has been adopted as a key strategy to improve the operation and maintenance, and thereby reduce losses, and enhance the sustainability of irrigation infrastructure. However, IMT efforts are at an inception stage and are largely happening in areas where infrastructure is under rehabilitation. The key objective of this paper, thus, was to review the ongoing IMT efforts in the two provinces of Iran, including the much publicized experiences from irrigation systems in the Qazvin Province, as well as the lessons from the neighboring countries, and propose a viable framework for implementing IMT.
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117. Minimizing the Negative Environmental and Health Impacts of Agricultural Water Resources Development in Sub-Saharan Africa
This paper provides a synopsis of environmental and health impacts arising from agricultural water development in sub-Saharan Africa and recommends ways to increase the sustainability of investments in irrigation by giving greater prominence to health and environmental concerns. The paper presents a conceptual framework for considering environmental and health issues in tandem; reviews current environmental and health assessment tools; describes national and donor policies; and analyzes current constraints to successful environmental and health planning and management. On the basis of findings, it makes recommendations to improve planning and management across a range of scales. The recommendations are of relevance to both water and agricultural planners and are timely, in the light of recent calls for significant increases in irrigation investment as a contribution to achieving the Millennium Development Goals.
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116. Application of the Water Evaluation And Planning (WEAP) Model to Assess Future Water Demands and Resources in the Olifants Catchment, South Africa
Being able to assess the ability of a catchment to satisfy potential water demands is crucial for water resource planning. In this study, a scenario analysis approach was used in combination with the Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP) model, to assess the impacts of possible future demands on the water resources of the Olifants River catchment, South Africa. The WEAP model was used to simulate water demand in five different sectors; rural, urban, mining, commercial forestry and irrigation. For each scenario the model provided data on unmet demands and the impacts on river flow. The implications of construction of new water infrastructure and improved demand management were assessed. The study illustrates the value of scenarios linked to simple modeling tools, to provide insight for resource planning.
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115. Sustaining Crop Water Productivity in Rice-Wheat Systems of South Asia: A Case Study from the Punjab, Pakistan
This working paper presents the results of the Pakistan Component of the Rice-Wheat Consortium Project on ‘Sustaining the rice-wheat production systems of Asia’. Rice and wheat crops are main sources of human food and substantially contribute to feeding livestock. The advent of the green revolution in the 1960s resulted in a tremendous increase in the production of these two cereal crops and the rice-wheat cropping system emerged as a very important source of food supply in South Asia.
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114. Multiple Use Schemes: Benefit to Smallholders
This study has tried to look into the various aspects of introduction and use of MUS and its effect on the household and the community to identify factors for up-scaling. Due to the unavailability of benchmark data, the assessment of the schemes is based on the information obtained from the respondents for the before and after situations.
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113. Factors Affecting the Formation of FWUCs in Institution Building for PIMD in Cambodia: Two Case Studies
This study carried out towards the end of 2004 in two irrigation schemes of contrasting socioeconomic and physical scenarios analyzes the factors that influence the formation of FWUCs under different physical, socioeconomic, legal and institutional conditions. In this analysis it was found that the favorable socioeconomic conditions, appropriateness of the strategies and the process followed and link with the local institutions were the key attributes for the formation of functional FWUCs in the implementation of PIMD.
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112. Indigenous and Institutional Profile: Limpopo River Basin
This paper presents an overview of water-related governance structures and institutions in the Limpopo Basin. The Basin is of critical socio-economic importance to the 14 million people distributed across the four riparian states of Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. Urban centers, mostly in Botswana and South Africa, are major water users supplying industries, power stations and municipalities. Water is also used in rural areas for domestic, livestock watering and irrigation purposes. While irrigated agricultural activities are largely concentrated in South Africa
and Zimbabwe, the majority of rural populations engage in rain-fed agriculture, which does not guarantee secure livelihoods.
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111. Hydro-political Assessment of Water Governance from the Top-down and Review of Literature on Local Level Institutions and Practices in the Volta Basin
This Working Paper reports on research carried out in the Volta River Basin, by the research team in that basin implementing Project number 47, supported by the Challenge Program on Water and Food. The Project title is “Transboundary Water Governance for Agricultural and Economic Growth
and Improved Livelihoods in the Limpopo and Volta Basins: Towards African Indigenous Models of Governance.” A companion Working Paper (Earle et al. 2006) is being produced reporting on similar work in the Limpopo River Basin.
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110. A Review of Climate Change Scenarios and Preliminary Rainfall Trend Analysis in the Oum Er Rbia Basin, Morocco
The paper reviews the existing tools methods and general literature which deal with the construction of climate change (CC) scenarios and with the assessment of impacts of these scenarios on water resources. It further examines the existing CC predictions specific to Morocco. The paper further
describes the publicly available hydrometeorological time series data, which could be used to quantify the future CC scenarios for a river basin in Morocco (Oum er Rbia) and a smaller irrigation scheme within it (Tadla), located in the western part of the country. The data indicates that the
impact of future CC on water resources at smaller scales such as smaller river basins, specific water resources and irrigation systems has to date not been properly addressed and, therefore, constitutes a niche for immediate research.
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109. Smallholder System Innovations in Integrated Watershed Management (SSI)
Strategies of Water for Food and Environmental Security in Drought-Prone Tropical and Subtropical Agro-Ecosystems

Rapidly increasing population in the dynamic semi-arid agro-ecosystems in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) highlights the necessity to increase food production, while at the same time safe-guarding other ecological systems that support human development and well-being. In the past, increases in crop production to keep pace with population growth in this region were largely achieved through the expansion of cultivated area. Today, we must also consider ways of improving the productivity of already existing cropping systems. This working paper frames the critical questions that must be addressed through development-oriented research and describes the integrated research approach of the SSI program, its interconnected research projects - their scope and methodologies.
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108. Status of Institutional Reforms for Integrated Water Resources Management in Asia: Indications from Policy Reviews in Five Countries
This paper is based on a study of Asia’s water sector institutions. The main objective of this regional study was the development of a set of action plans for effective water management institutions in a number of selected Asian countries. The study concluded that there was no single best institutional model to satisfy all situations. Institutional requirements for water management vary depending on a number of environmental conditions, which are mainly determined by the stage of development of the country’s water sector. Institutions evolve depending on the water-related issues that the sector faces, as the water resources are gradually developed and utilized. Thus, effective water sector institutions are basically demand driven.
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107. "Institutional Adaptation" for Integrated Water Resources Management: An EffectiveStrategy
for Managing Asian River Basins
In many developing countries, their governments dominate the field of water resources management. Even in “participatory irrigation management” efforts, the governments play a dominant role. As these efforts are rarely based on any internally generated demand from the water users, they usually fail to create viable organizations at the local level. A similar setback can be seen in the more recent institutional reforms in Asia’s water sector, which are promoted by the donor agencies and, national and international development professionals. A survey of experiences in Asian countries shows that no country has successfully completed establishing new water sector policies and laws and river basin organizations, as prescribed.
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106. Assessing Water Availability under Pastoral Livestock Systems in Drought-prone Isiolo District, Kenya
This paper is based on a study conducted in Isiolo District of Kenya between 2002 and 2003 in collaboration with Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology; the Ministry of Water Resources Management and Development-District Water Office, Isiolo; the Ministry of Agriculture
and Livestock Development-Isiolo and Meru Dryland Farming Project. The study received the support from Catholic Organization for Relief and Development (Cordaid). The International Water Management Institute (IWMI) provided support for the preparation of this publication. Names of
government ministries have been retained as they were at the time of the study.
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105. Overview of Water and Soil Nutrient Management under Smallholder Rain-fed Agriculture in East Africa
Agriculture is the most important economic activity in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) supporting over 67 percent of the population, but 60 percent of these depends on rain-based rural economies, generating in the range of 30-40 percent of the countries’ GDP (World Bank 1997). However, rainfall is poorly distributed, ranging from 1,430 mm per annum in central African countries to about 71 mm in arid countries (ECA 2003).
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104. Potential for Water Conservation and Harvesting against Drought in Rajasthan, India
This study examines the potential for water harvesting and conservation against drought in the Indian state of Rajasthan. It indicates that despite water resources depletion, the state still has significant potential for harvesting and conserving water if an integrated water resources management approach is adopted, and proper policies and investment actions are implemented using recent technologies.
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103. An Assessment of Hydrology and Environmental Flows in the Walawe River Basin, Sri Lanka
This paper focuses on the Walawe River basin, located in a semi-arid zone of southern Sri Lanka. The two major reservoirs in the upstream and middle reaches of the river with a total capacity of 486 million cubic meters (MCM) have significantly affected the hydrology of the river, with associated adverse environmental and social consequences.
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102. Bright Spots Demonstrate Community Successes in African Agriculture
This paper integrates the ideas and findings of four presentations in the section “Community Successes” at the Nairobi NEPAD Regional Conference and those of the facilitated discussion sessions during the conference. The four presentations are also documented in the following chapters. We will focus here particularly on “lessons learned” with respect to outscaling (more of the same) and upscaling (expansion to larger regions and higher levels of governance) of such successes.
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101. Reducing Poverty through Investments in Agricultural Water Management
This document provides a preliminary understanding of the poverty reduction impacts of a range of agricultural water development interventions in sub Saharan Africa, including lower cost alternatives to conventional irrigation investment projects, identifies factors that constrain the poverty reduction impacts of projects and technologies, and derives conclusions and recommendations useful for further water resources development planning in the region.
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100.Opportunities for Private Sector Participation in Agricultural Water Development and
Management
This study examines ways to increase food security, reduce poverty and achieve economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa with ‘water’ through increased participation of the private sector and publicprivate
partnerships. This report is a summary of the findings from a review of the literature and critical analysis thereof.
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99.Improving Irrigation Project Planning and Implementation Processes in Sub-Saharan Africa: Diagnosis and Recommendations
Weaknesses in planning and implementation (P&I) have been identified as one of the main reasons for the disappointing results of agricultural water development and management projects. Based on a review and critical analysis of experiences and case studies in sub-Saharan Africa, this study
component proposes practical ways of improving performance related to planning and implementation and thereby enhancing the returns to investments in agricultural water.

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98. Experiences and Opportunities for Promoting Small-Scale/Micro Irrigation and Rainwater Harvesting for Food Security in Ethiopia
This paper reports on government institutions involved in the development and promotion of smallholder water and land management interventions, especially small-scale irrigation, microirrigation and water harvesting, for improving the livelihoods and food security of millions of poor rural people.
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97. Center Commissioned External Review of IWMI Research Theme 1 : Agricultural Water Management
This Working Paper presents the final report from the Center Commissioned External Review of IWMI Research Theme 1: Agricultural Water Management, and IWMI's Management Response. These documents, together with the overall program direction, were reviewed and approved by IWMI's Board of Governors during its Program Committee Meeting, held on May 17, 2005 in Tehran, Iran.
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96. Stakeholder Participation in Developing Institutions for Integrated Water Resources Management: Lessons from Asia
This paper is based on a recently conducted study of five river basins in Asia. In all of the basins studied, the water sector was confronting the challenge of a complex management situation, which characterized a growing competition among various water user  g roups, and consequently, an increasing number of linkages between water and other resources.
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95. Current Policy and Status of DDT Use for Malaria Control in Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya and South Africa
Each year, the world experiences 300–500 million cases of malaria. Approximately 90 percent of these cases occur in sub-Saharan countries, where over one million children under the age of five die of malaria annually (WHO 2000). Hence, for most African countries, malaria has become an overwhelming public health problem, leading some governments to consider using DDT for malaria control in the midst of a heightened debate about its advantages and disadvantages. This paper seeks to document the nature of the DDT debate in East and Southern Africa by describing the current DDT policy, factors that influence malaria control policy formation as well as views on alternatives to DDT use by malaria and insecticide control specialists and their knowledge about the human health impacts of DDT.
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94. Centre Commissioned External Review (CCER) of the IWMI-TATA Water Policy Research Program
This Working Paper presents the final CCER report and IWMI’s Management Response. These documents, together with the overall program direction, were reviewed and approved by IWMI’s Board of Governors during its Program Committee Meeting, held on November 17, 2004 in Colombo, Sri Lanka.
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93. State Level Analysis of Drought Policies and Impacts in Rajasthan, India
The conventional attitude to a drought as a phenomenon of arid and semi-arid areas is changing because areas with high average rainfall are also facing acute water scarcity. This shows that drought is just not the scarcity or absence of rainfall, but it is more related to water resource management (or mismanagement). In the case of Rajasthan, there have been 48 drought years of varied intensity since 1901. A more detailed analysis reveals that only 9 out of the last 102 years had been drought free, and at village level the number of drought-free years would be even less. However, despite this, the State considers drought as a transient phenomenon where short-term relief measures are considered to be a solution. This paper examines the range of drought management issues in the State of Rajasthan and seeks to identify existing gaps and suggest measures to reduce the impact of droughts in the future.
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92. Small Tank Cascade Systems in the Walawe River Basin
This report on small tank cascade systems is based on a study conducted on seven tank cascades of the Walawe river basin, one of the three main river basins in the Ruhuna benchmark basins selected by the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) for its benchmark basin study.
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91. Drought Impacts and Potential for Their Mitigation in Southern and Western Afghanistan
The western parts of south Asia, comprising parts of west India, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran constitute, perhaps, the largest contiguous geographical area in the world affected by droughts. Because of the high frequency of drought occurrence, high population density and poor economic conditions of the population in this region, governments and other stakeholders need to be informed as to the causes of droughts and measures taht can be taken to mitigate their efect, and alleviate human suffering. In 2003, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) initiated a regional study on drought assessment and mitigation in southwest Asia, including individual studies in west India, Pakistan and Afghanistan. The study was conducted in cooperation with the Faculty of Agriculture of Kabul University, Ministry for Irrigation, Water Resources and Environment (MIWRE) and FAO-Afghanistan.
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90. An Evaluation of Proposed World Water Programme Indicators for Use in South Africa
The World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP), in its 2003 inaugural report, published a list of proposed indicators for participating countries to consider for monitoring and reporting within 11 priority themes. Since these indicators will require evaluation and testing in terms of their relevance and practicality, the WWAP has embarked on a phase of developing and evaluating indicators. The present study forms part of this evaluation phase and makes use of South Africa as an African Continent case study to assess and provide feedback on the proposed WWAP indicators. The main objective of the study is to evaluate the proposed WWAP indicators in terms of their relevance and practicality to South Africa.
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89. Adaptive, Participatory and Integrated Assessment (APIA) of the Impacts of Irrigation on Fisheries, Evaluation of the Approach in Sri Lanka
Irrigated agriculture is the largest user of water globally and its development can have significant impacts on inland fisheries. These impacts can be varied and complex, and range from biodiversity concerns to economic impacts and changes in the livelihood opportunities of rural households. There is a need to improve the knowledge of these impacts and integrate their assessment into project planning and implementation. This paper describes an approach designed to meet this challenge and the results of its pilot-testing in Sri Lanka. The approach derives from a literature review of planning and appraisal methodologies, interaction by a multidisciplinary team of researchers and evaluation of the test case.
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88. Biophysical and Institutional Factors in Watershed Management
Watershed development and management are actively promoted by governments and non-governmental organizations alike in India and other water-scarce developing countries as a means of providing rural livelihoods and as a response to natural resource degradation. Finding the right balance between technical, managerial, and institutional thrusts of watershed projects in order to “deliver the goods” in a sustainable manner, remains a major challenge. This paper reports on four such pilot projects, implemented in watersheds in India’s tribal (adivasi) belt by Catholic Relief Services (CRS) and associated partners, with analytical support for data collection and interpretation, together with recommendations by IWMI.
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87. Livelihoods and Gender Roles in Drip-Irrigation Technology: A Case of Nepal
This paper attempts to understand gender issues in micro-irrigation technology by exploring the dynamics of gender, water and rural livelihoods. Based on an empirical study in the rural areas of West Nepal undertaken in 2003, the paper assesses the socioeconomic impact of drip-irrigation systems on men and womens lives.
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86. Analysis of Drought Coping Strategies in Baluchistan and Sindh Provinces of Pakistan
This paper presents the results of a comprehensive drought survey in the two provinces, which were conducted to assess the impact of drought on the livelihoods and personal security of people, at the household and village level. It also reviews the role of government agencies and NGOs in providing relief to the drought-affected areas.
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85. Drought Mitigation in Pakistan: Current Status and Options for Future Strategies
Droughts are typical in Pakistan as in most of southwest Asia and continue causing multiple adverse impacts. This paper reviews factors affecting or associated with droughts in the target areas. It identifies gaps in the institutional and policy arenas with recommendations for remedial measures. It also provides analyses of coping strategies adopted by stakeholders in mitigating droughts, and documents lessons gained during previous drought cycles. This study is part of the Regional Project on "Drought Assessment and Potential for Mitigation in Southwest Asia" which is being implemented by IWMI in collaboration with regional partners.
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84. Review and Analysis of Drought Monitoring, Declaration and Management in India
The drought in 2002, one of the severest in the 130-year history of India, affected 56% of the geographical area, and the livelihoods of 300 million people in 18 states. About 150 million cattle were affected and the federal government allocated a financial relief of IRs.200 billion (US$4.4 billion). The IT-enabled process of drought monitoring and declaration is, therefore, important to enhance preparedness, quick response, relief, recovery, and mitigation and management systems. Besides analyzing the procedures and impacts of drought monitoring and management in India, this paper also presents some lessons for neighboring countries.
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83. Review, Automated Estimation and Analyses of Drought Indices in South Asia
While reviewing the existing indices which have been developed for monitoring and quantitative assessment of droughts, this paper analyzes their applicability for drought prediction and management in South Asia. It further describes the suite of routines which have been developed for automated estimation, display and analyses of various drought indices. The suite forms part of the comprehensive computer package, developed earlier and designed to perform the multitude of water resources analyses and hydrometeorological data processing. The seven-step procedure of setting up and running a typical drought-assessment application is described in detail.
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82. Estimating Water Requirements and Water Storage Requirements for Farms, Community and Backyard Gardens, and for Large Irrigation Systems
IWMI requested the author to develop a computer model (PLANWAT) for use in its research projects and in collaborative action research projects with other organizations. PLANWAT is a computer model that uses the single crop outputs of SAPWAT, combines them into a cropping system and calculates irrigation requirements for that system. It is suitable for use on a range of systems, from 10 m2 to several million hectares. For small areas, it links to a water-harvesting module that estimates required runoff areas and minimum storage volumes. It is expected that this computer program will be useful for those who manage irrigation water on farms
and in irrigation systems, and for those who design water storage facilities for farms. The printed version includes a CD-ROM
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76. Hydrology and Water Resources Development in the Olifants River Catchment
In terms of the national economy, the Olifants River (one of the major tributaries of the Limpopo River) is one of the country’s most significant waterways. Approximately 3,400,000 people live in its catchment, with a considerable concentration of South Africa’s industrial and agricultural activities. It is one of the first in South Africa for which a Catchment Mangement Agency (CMA) is planned. However, there are considerable inequities in urban-domestic water consumption between different areas of the catchment, varying from 47 litres per day in the former homelands, to 183 liters per day in areas where the majority of the white population live.
This report examines the expected demands for water resources in the next 20 years, the difficulties that have arisen due to a lack of integrated management, and recommends that further research should be undertaken to provide insights into the
implications of water conservation and demand management strategies, and a range of factors that affect inter-sectoral water utilization.
  

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75. The River Basin Game: A Water Dialogue Tool
The working paper describes how to arrange, budget for, deliver and monitor the River Basin Game (RBG), which is a role-playing tool for promoting dialogue and decision-making over water resources. The River Basin Game is a physical representation of a catchment (or small river basin) with a gradient to show upstream-downstream flow of water. Upstream abstractors/users of water tend to be favored over downstream abstractors and users of water.
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74. Possible Impacts of the Transformation of Water Infrastructure on Productive Water Uses
The Case of the Seokodibeng Village in South Africa
The study assesses the current water supply system and water uses in the Seokodibeng village in the former Lebowa homeland, in the Limpopo Province of South Africa. This village is part of a group of 96 villages that are to receive water from a pipeline built by neighboring mines in order to secure their development. The mines and the villages are members of the Lebalelo Water User Association. In 2003, this association was the only
Water User Association in South Africa not based on farming activities. The initial question of this study concerns the future of productive uses of water at village and household levels once Seokodibeng's connection to the pipeline is achieved.
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73. The Transformation of Irrigation Boards into Water User Associations in South Africa:
Case Studies of the Umlaas, Komati, Lomati and Hereford Irrigation Boards
Volume 2
This working paper is mainly based on interviews, and the active collaboration of many persons was a key factor in enabling these case studies. Discussions before, during and after the field work were held with staff of the provincial DWAF (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry) offices. Officials of the Irrigation Boards enthusiastically supported the study and provided significant assistance.
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72. The Transformation of Irrigation Boards into Water User Associations in South Africa:
Case Studies of the Lower Olifants, Great Letaba and Vaalharts Water User Associations
Volume 1

The main objective of the research was to understand the constraints and opportunities of the transformation of Irrigation Boards into Water User Associations, with regard to the goal of meeting the water-related needs of historically disadvantaged individuals. A secondary objective was to assess the role of these new WUAs with regard to integrated local water resource management. This working paper covers three case studies of IBs that have already been transformed into WUAs, and will constitute the background information for a forthcoming research report.

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71. Formal Water Rights in Rural Tanzania: Deepening the Dichotomy?
In the past decade, the Tanzanian Government designed and implemented a new administrative water rights system, with the aim of improving basin-level water management and cost-recovery for government water-resource management services. Contrary to expectations, the new system has failed as a registration tool, a taxation tool, and a water management tool, and has also contributed to aggravating rural poverty. However, the taxation of a the few private large-scale water users, according to negotiated rates, appeared to be feasible. The paper attempts to identify the root of these paradoxical results, and suggests adaptations in the water rights system to better service all users, and improve cost-recovery for government services.
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70. Gender Roles and Multiple Uses of Water in North Gujarat
This study tries to examine gender roles as both domestic activities and productive water users and how these roles help women improve their socioeconomic status. The specific objectives of
the paper are: to examine gender roles and responsibilities of multiple water users with an estimation of actual water use for domestic and livestock purposes and to analyze the operational income and expenditure associated with water-based home enterprises.
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69. Institutional Changes to Reduce Land Preparation Delay in the North Central
Province of Sri Lanka
Although many irrigation systems in the dry zone of Sri Lanka have water shortage problems, water consumption is very high during land preparation. This paper analyzes the impact of institutional interventions on efficient water management, especially during the land preparation period. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the factors behind prolonged periods of land preparation so that system managers and farmers communities can develop appropriate interventions to reduce water consumption.
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68. Accounting of Agricultural and Nonagricultural Impacts of Irrigation and Drainage Systems
This paper is a collaborative research between the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Agricultural Engineering Research Centre of Taiwan. This study contributes to IWMI’s program on the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. The research in 2003 consists of two components. First, research in Taiwan continues on estimating the positive and negative externalities of paddy-rice production. Second, research is being conducted in Sri Lanka to assess more broadly the impact of water resource development. In addition, two extensive literature reviews have been completed.
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66. Improving Agricultural Productivity for Poverty Alleviation through Integrated Service Provision with Public-Private Sector Partnerships: Examples and Issues

This paper focuses on three key questions: (1) why is agricultural productivity low in the region?; (2) what are the key constraints and opportunities for enhancing agricultural productivity; and (3) what are the effective mechanisms to improve access to key productivity enhancing technologies, factors and services. Based on examples of various models, initiatives and practices from Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, China, Sub-Saharan Africa and other countries, the study suggests a framework for integrated services provision in the agricultural sector, and raises key research issues and questions to be explored.

This paper forms part of the Asian Development Bank (ADB) funded multi-country project on "Pro-poor intervention strategies in irrigated agriculture in Asia."

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65. Growing More Rice with Less Water: Increasing Water Productivity in Rice-Based Cropping Systems

Progress of Research 1 July 2002 to 30 June 2003
Work continues at two sites in China, the Zhanghe irrigation system (ZIS) in Hubei and the Liuyuankuo irrigation system (LIS) in Henan, and at the Murrumbidgee irrigation area (MIA) in Australia. This Progress report is presented by sub-project. However, as we move into the modeling phase of the study, a major focus this coming year will be on integrating activities between subprojects. In the future, we plan to give more emphasis to presentation of results and dialogue at the
system and farm level on issues related to potentials for improved management and potential for further water savings.

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64. The Groundwater Economy of Pakistan
This working paper presents the results of a comprehensive groundwater survey of Pakistan, designed to understand the dynamics of groundwater use, operation and maintenance patterns, socio-economics of groundwater irrigation, land use pattern, crops, yields, and groundwater irrigation practices.
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63. Biodiversity Associated with the Rice Field Agro-ecosystem in Asian Countries: A Brief Review
This review is intended to bring together the published information available on the biodiversity associated with the rice field agrosystem, in countries extending across Asia from Sri Lanka to Japan.
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62. Rethinking Tanks: Opportunities for Revitalising Irrigation Tanks - Empirical Findings from Ananthapur District, Andhra Pradesh, India
This study finds that in the Ananthapur district of Andhra Pradesh, tanks were a precarious source of irrigation, even at the peak of their use. Hence, with the use of electricity supply and reduction in the cost of groundwater extraction technology, farmers moved to groundwater irrigation. Along with a rise in groundwater irrigation, however, a steady decline in tank irrigated area was witnessed.
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61. Anicut Systems in Sri Lanka : The Case of Upper Walawe River Basin
This exploratory study was designed to capture the main features of agrarian change in the upper part of the basin that depends mostly on anicuts. These anicuts amount to 59 percent of the total basin anicuts in terms of numbers, but to only 43 percent in terms of irrigated area. They are generally very old (the history of some of them goes back to 2000 years; see below) and obviously, many changes have occurred during this time. The study does not allow the reconstitution of all past transformations but offers some insight on recent changes: changes in population pressure over resources and changes in hydrology, crop choice, livelihoods and collective action. The analysis is based on exploratory surveys carried out by the authors and by students of the University of Sabaragamuwa and is not a detailed or in-depth investigation of agricultural systems in the Upper Walawe basin. However, it provides a useful outline of the situation in this part of the basin.
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60. Food Security and Sustainable Agriculture in India: The Water Management Challenge
The author argues that the allocation of tradable private property rights in water will lead to overall enhancement in the economic efficiency of water use and higher productivity in agriculture. The enforcement of tradable private property rights will ensure equitable access to water in water scarce regions for agriculture, and also for all classes. This is critical from the point of view of local and domestic food security. Moreover, as in water abundant regions, it can also provide the landless farmers with sufficient incentives to invest in development and transfer water for highly productive uses elsewhere, and generate income. The volumetric pricing of water from public canals and unit pricing of electricity in the farm sector with carefully designed structures, along with properly enforced water rights, can, not only improve the physical efficiency of the water use in agriculture, but also provide the rich and poor farmers with equal income earning opportunities from farming.
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59. Multi-Level Participatory Consultive Approach for Institutional Change in River Basins: Lessons from the Deduru Oya Case Study
This paper discusses methodologies applied in the Deduru Oya river basin, the basin selected from Sri Lanka for the regional study on the development of effective water management institutions. The study was funded by the Asian Development Bank (ADB) to assist the five countries, Indonesia, the Philippines, Nepal, China and Sri Lanka to work out methodologies and develop effective water management institutions (ADB-RETA 5812). The Deduru Oya basin in which the empirical studies were carried out is located in the northwestern province of Sri Lanka.
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58. Developing Effective Institutions for Water Resources Management: A Case Study in the Deduru Oya Basin, Sri Lanka
The overall objective of the case study conducted in Sri Lanka was to help the government of Sri Lanka to improve the institutions managing scarce water resources within the frame work of integrated water resources management. This case study included a comprehensive assessment of the existing physical, socio-economic and institutional environment in the river basin and also the long term changes that are likely to take place.
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57. Yellow River Comprehensive Assessment, Basin Features and Issues
A new report assessing the state of China's Yellow River could offer hope in providing much needed answers to the critical water management problems facing the countries 2nd longest river. The assessment carried out by researchers from the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) and the Yellow River Conservancy Commission (YRCC). The report was carried out as part of the Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, an international research program. The findings are stark. They highlight the four major challenges currently facing the river as being increased water scarcity, degraded environment, massive soil conservation needs and constant flood threats.
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56. Strategies for Conserving Water and Effecting Mosquito Vector Control in Rice Ecosystems: A Case Study from Tamil Nadu, India
A small-scale case study on the impacts of water saving irrigation techniques on land and water productivity and mosquito vector breeding was carried out in farmer-managed rice fields under the command of the Andaman Tank in Madurai District, Tamil Nadu State, India, during October 1999 to January 2000. The tank received water from its own catchment as well as from a sluice of the main canal of a nearby major irrigation system.
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55. Innovative Approaches Agricultural Water Use for Improving Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa
This paper provides an overview of innovative options for developing and using water for food production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) in light of the growing scarcity and competition for water resources. These options include rainwater harvesting selective development of wetlands for agriculture, exploitation of shallow groundwater, and recycling urban waste. The options are largely based on low-cost individualized technologies, which lend themselves to private-sector promotion. Water-demand management approaches are also discussed.
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54. Growing More Rice with Less Water: Increasing Water productivity in Rice-Based Cropping Systems
The objectives of this project are to study the potential impact of water-saving irrigation (WSI) techniques on water savings and water productivity at field, system, and sub-basin level and to assess the potential of technologies for widespread adoption. The project, which is based on research in China and Australia, is structured around four well-defined subprojects - these being farm and field-level assessment of different water-saving techniques, system and sub-basin level hydrological impacts of farm-level adoption, the effects of policies, institutions, management practices, and infrastructure on the allocation and utilization of water, and the extension of water saving practices.
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53. Integrated Database Development for River Basin Management: An Example from Rechna Doab
This paper presents a conceptual framework and a methodology for the development of an integrated database for use in river basin management. The GIS based database will provide information (spatial and non-spatial data) in friendly and easy format in the form of maps, tables and charts. It presents a case study of the Rechna Doab (Indus River sub-basin in Pakistan) to illustrate the development of an integrated database and how the spatial database nurtures spatial data modeling and a decision support system.
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50. Institutional Constraints to Conjunctive Water Management in the Rechna Doab
This paper discusses the institutional framework for conjunctive water management in the Rechna Doab area of Pakistan and identifies institutional constraints to the effective conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater. It proposes a regulatory framework for achieving effective conjunctive water management.
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49. Water Resources Management in Afghanistan: The Issues and Options
The economy of Afghanistan is based on agricultural production and the majority of the rural population comprises small subsistence farmers. The management of the water resources of the country is vital for economic growth and to meet the people's needs of food and fiber. Lack of data and the unreliability of available data make it difficult to understand and assess the current situation of the water sector in Afghanistan. This paper presents an analysis of the status of water resources management in Afghanistan and identifies steps necessary to maximize the use of the available water resources to enhance crop productivity and environmental sustainability.
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48. Conjunctive Water Management in the Rechna Doab: An Overview of Resources and Issues
This paper reviews the conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater within the Rechna Doab. The Rechna Doab, the land between the Ravi and Chenab rivers in the Punjab province of Pakistan, is 2.98 million hectares in extent and its cultivated area is regarded as the granary of the Punjab province. The paper documents the resource base, technologies, institutions and management methods that have been used or may play a vital role in conjunctive water management in the Rechna Doab. It also describes the potential for horizontal and vertical increases in cropping area and highlights constraints faced by farmers in conjunctive water management.
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47. Malaria in Irrigated Agriculture
The Special SIMA Seminar on Malaria in Irrigated Agriculture at the 18 th ICID International Congress on Irrigation and Drainage was one of the activities aimed at increasing awareness in the agricultural community on the potential of environmental interventions to reduce malaria. This document contains papers and abstracts submitted for this seminar in Montreal, Canada. This seminar is organized by SIMA, the CGIAR Systemwide Initiative on Malaria and Agriculture, in collaboration with the International Water Management Institute (IWMI).
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46. Linkages between Irrigation and Drinking Water in Pakistan
From 1998 to 2002, the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) conducted different studies on the linkages between irrigation water management and health in the southern Punjab, Pakistan. This paper presents the findings of the studies on water quality and domestic water use.
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45. Pesticides: Health Impacts and Alternatives
Proceedings of a Workshop Held in Colombo 24 January 2002
This paper presents the workshop proceedings and includes a resource handbook for Sri Lanka on health impacts of pesticides and alternatives by listing names of relevant institutes, addresses and annotated references.
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44. Simulating Impacts of Irrigation on the Hydrology of the Karagan Lagoon in Sri Lanka
Part of IWMI's research focuses on assessing the impact of large-scale irrigation systems on the biodiversity of natural ecosystems. One such study monitors the impact of the extension of the Uda Walawe irrigation scheme in southern Sri Lanka. Phase two of the Uda Walawe left bank extension project will extend the main canal by 19 km, divert large quantities of water into the area, irrigate an additional 5150 ha, lead to a major change in land use and facilitate the settlement of almost four thousand families. With completion targeted for 2004, this irrigation project provides a unique opportunity to assess the pre-development status as well as to monitor ongoing changes.
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43. Accounting of Agricultural and Nonagricultural Impacts of Irrigation and Drainage Systems:
A Study of Multifunctionality in Rice
The "non-commodity" functions associated with agriculture, especially those with non-market outputs, may have significant impacts, positive or negative, on the sustainability of agricultural activity. For example, irrigation facilities that deliver water to rice fields serve a multitude of other beneficial purposes, including provision of water for domestic use, bathing, livestock, trees and other natural vegetation, groundwater recharge and flood control. This study examines the non-commodity functions of rice irrigation in Taiwan, particularly as they relate to society, human health and the environment, and, to the extent possible, quantifies them for some situations in Taiwan. It concludes that the monetary value of the multiple functions of rice irrigation is very substantial-on the order of its commodity value -and decisions about the future of rice agriculture should factor in both types of outputs.
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42. Environmental Water Needs and Impacts of Irrigated Agriculture in River Basins : A Framework for a New Research Program
The intention of this paper is to develop a framework for a new IWMI research program on environmental water requirements of aquatic ecosystems and environmental aspects associated with irrigated agriculture in river basins and wetlands. The program will be implemented primarily in the context of developing countries, but the paper also examines research questions, which are of general importance for eco-hydrology and environmental water resources management.
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41. Integrated Development and Management of Water Resources for Productive and Equitable Use in the Indrawati River Basin, Nepal
This paper on the Melamchi water transfer project which is being carried out in the Indrawati river basin,3 is a summary and synthesis of four detailed case studies conducted earlier, in relation to the project. The case studies were conducted in Nepal by the IWMI and Water and Energy Commission Secretariat (WECS)/Nepal team, funded by the Ford Foundation/India.
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40. Farmers' Skimming Well Technologies: Practices, Problems, Perceptions and Prospects
In the Indus basin of Pakistan, farmers use skimming wells to extract the upper freshwater layer to supplement their canal irrigation supplies. These farmers and drillers evolved skimming well technologies without any expert technical guidance. This has resulted in economical, technical, operational and environmental problems and in the low performance of these tube wells. This paper presents the results of a case study conducted in a Salinity Control and Reclamation Project area of the Indus basin, to identify these problems and solve them with the participation of farmers.
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39. Irrigation Impacts on Income Inequality and Poverty Eleviation : Policy Issues and Options for Improved Management of Irrigation Systems
This study explores the conceptual and policy issues relating to the impact that irrigation has on crop production, farm income, inequities in income distribution and poverty alleviation. It also focuses, specifically, on poverty issues associated with head-tail water distribution inequity in an irrigation system.
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38. Do Equal Land and Water Rights Benefit the Poor ?
Targeted Irrigation Development: The Case of the Andhi Khola Irrigation Scheme in Nepal
The research aims to fill this latter gap by analyzing the experiences in the Andhi Khola Irrigation Scheme in the hills of west central Nepal. The United Mission to Nepal (UMN), in collaboration with the Department of Irrigation of His Majesty's Government of Nepal, initiated this project in 1982. An area of 282 hectares of which only small portions received water from seasonal streams came under year-round irrigation. A distributive land reform policy was implemented in this area according to which larger farmers had to sell part of their land for resale to the landless. Moreover, the project designed and implemented a water allocation system in which everyone could earn tradable water rights (shares) through participation in construction work. In 1997, the scheme was finalized and handed over to the Andhi Khola Water Users Association (AKWUA).
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37. Wastewater use in Agriculture : Review of Impacts and Methodological Issues in Valuing Impacts
The objective of this paper is to provide a review of the characteristics of wastewater used for irrigation, and the reasoning behind the international guidelines presently used in regulating wastewater reuse for agriculture.This paper presents various systems of wastewater treatment available and discusses their benefits and shortcomings.Finally, the paper provides the review of environmental valuation techniques for analyzing impacts of wastewater uses in agriculture, and suggest a framework for application of some of these techniques. This framework will be applied to a developing country case study (Faisalabad area in Pakistan), in the ongoing IWMI research program.
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36. Global Irrigated Area Mapping : Overview and Recommendations
This working paper gives an overview of the available global datasets on irrigated areas and an evaluation of their strengths and weaknesses. From these analyses an outline on how to develop a global irrigated area map, based on a generic methodology, is be presented. Some examples are given for the area covering India, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. These countries offer a broad range of irrigated areas in different environmental settings, ranging from deserts to humid tropics.
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35. Root Zone Salinity Management Using Fractional Skimming Wells with Pressurized Irrigation: Inception Report
In the Indus basin of Pakistan, salty groundwater is overlain by fresh groundwater due to seepage from rivers and canals of the Indus basin irrigation system. It is estimated that nearly 200 billion cubic meters of fresh groundwater is lying on salty groundwater. If proper technology is applied, this freshwater can be skimmed from the aquifer with minimum disturbance of the salty groundwater zone. This paper presents the inception report of a project for the sustainable exploitation and application of fresh groundwater in irrigated agriculture in Pakistan. The main focus of the project is to introduce packages of technology and management to address serious concerns related to the quality and quantity of groundwater and ensure the use of this freshwater resource on a sustainable basis. The components of these technological and management packages will be fractional skimming wells, dugwells, pressurized irrigation application systems, and irrigation scheduling advisory services.
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34. Proposed Business Plan for Pilot Farmer Organizations
This paper presents general guidelines to farmer organizations on how to achieve economic viability and how to carry out effective monitoring through an accountability mechanism. The paper is based on field studies conducted in the Sindh province of Pakistan. These guidelines could be useful in developing the future action plan after irrigation management transfer to the farmer organization. They deal with water supply and distribution, operation and maintenance, assessment and collection of water rates, and financial record keeping.
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33. Farmers' Perceptions of the Social Mobilization of Water User Organizations in the Sindh, Pakistan
This study assesses the impact of social mobilization for participatory irrigation management as perceived by farmers of selected water user organizations in the Sindh province of Pakistan. The study looks at the development and constraints of the farmer organizations' functional capacity, particularly in regard to equity, reliability, empowerment, participation, intra-organizational activities and inter-organizational relations.
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32. Water for Rural Development : Background Paper on Water for Rural Development Prepared for the World Bank
This paper on Water for Rural Development is divided into two parts. The first part outlines the most important issues from IWMI's point of view on water for rural development, with a focus on developing countries. This part identifies, discusses and provides recommendations for key areas for interventions in water resources development and management in the context of rural development.
The second part of the document provides analyses of present and future water resources in the World Bank's defined regions.
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31. Assessment of Performance and Impact of Irrigation and Water Resources Systems in Taiwan and Sri Lanka
This report is based on the Taiwan's irrigation systems.The first part of this report gives a brief introduction to the Taiwan irrigation systems. Based on the visit and discussions by two IWMI staff members from 25 September to 4 October 2000 with the Association Managers, staff of the Agricultural Engineering Research Centre (AERC) and staff of the Council of Agriculture (COA), certain issues were identified in the two systems, which are detailed. In the second part, the results of analyses of the performance of these two irrgation systems of Taiwan are compared with a irrgation system from Sri Lanka.
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30. Wastewater Reuse in Agriculture in Vietnam : Water Management, Environment and Human Health Aspects
This working paper contains the proceedings of the workshop that was organized on 14 March 2001 in Hanoi, gathering experts from the various disciplines such as health, environment,water resources management, irrigation, agriculture, soil sciences, water quality, etc. to discuss the findings of 16 papers on different aspects of wastewater reuse. The proceedings of this workshop are presented here in summary form, which we hope will provide a bird's-eye view of the current knowledge in Vietnam on this subject to a wide spectrum of interested persons.
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29. Malaria Risk Mapping in Sri Lanka - Implications for its Use in Control
This working paper contains the proceedings of the workshop on "Malaria risk mapping in Sri Lanka-implications for its use in control" that was held on May 25, 2001 at IWMI Headquarters in Colombo, which was a follow up to the workshop conducted on March 29, 2001 in Embilipitiya. The workshop in Embilipitiya was organized at the local level to discuss the results of the malaria risk mapping work carried out by IWMI in the Uda Walawe region of Sri Lanka. Participants at this workshop were local health staff involved in malaria control work in
the area and officials from the Land Use Planning Offices and Divisional Secretariats.
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28. Institutional Arrangements for Land Drainage in Developing Countries
The literature review on "Institutional arrangements for land drainage in developing countries" provides an overview over irrigation and drainage development, drainage problems and, in particular, displays the institutional arrangements in selected countries (Egypt, India, Peru, the
Philippines and South Africa). India, the Philippines and South Africa are countries where IWMI is interested in carrying out research on the relationship between the effectiveness of institutions and performance; Egypt has developed institutions capable of addressing drainage needs; Peru is in the process of establishing Autonomous Hydrological Basin Authorities for catchment-wide management of water resources including drainage.
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27. Ruhuna Benchmark Basin Activities - Proceedings of the Inaugural Meeting held at Peacock Beach Hotel, Hambantota, Sri Lanka, 15 June 2001
This paper presents a Benchmark Basin initiative which was proposed in IWMI's Strategic Plan 2001-2005 as an approach to understand and beneficially influence water resources development in selected basins in a variety of agro-ecological zones.The initial task represented by this workshop is to conduct a dialogue among partners and stakeholders in the Ruhuna Basin,Sri Lanka. A major objective is to identify these issues and research and also development activities considered to be of highest priority to partners and stakeholders.
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26. A Framework for Analysing Socioeconomic, Health and Environmental Impacts of Wastewater Use in Agriculture in Developing Countries
This paper presents an approach for analyzing the socioeconomic,
health, and environmental aspects of urban wastewater use in peri-urban agriculture, using typical characteristics of a major city in a developing country. Peri-urban area of Faisalabad is chosen to
represent this context.
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25. Childhood Diarrhea and Hygiene : Mothers' Perception and Practices in the Punjab, Pakistan
A study was carried out in the southern Punjab, Pakistan to outline the causes of childhood diarrhea as perceived by mothers and, especially, to assess perceptions of mothers on childhood diarrhea in relation to hygiene practices and drinking water and sanitation facilities. Two hundred households in ten villages were randomly selected. Information was obtained from mothers, through a questionnaire, in-depth interviews, and direct observations. The focus was on obtaining
information from mothers of children that were below five years of age. Causes of diarrhea reported by mothers were categorized in seven different domains.
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24. Spatial distribution of Reference and Potential Evapotranspiration Across the Indus Basin Irrigation Irrigation Systems
Spatial and temporal estimation of potential water requirements for agriculture will permit the assessment of expected level of water stress and help in improved planning and allocation of water resources and sustainable groundwater management. This study assesses potential crop consumptive use at the main-canal level by improving the estimation of reference evapotranspiration and crop coefficients, using the latest and most comprehensive set of data available in the Indus Basin. The water needs of major crops and the actual irrigated areas of each canal command in the basin are also estimated to make the results of this study readily useable for further research and planning.
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23. Analysis of Hydro-meteorological time series, searching Evidence for Climatic change in the Upper Indus Basin
The study examines some of the major components of water cycle in the Upper Indus Basin (UIB) to look for evidence of climate change. An analysis of hydrometeorological data has been performed for UIB. An Additive Decomposition Model was used for analyzing the time series
data